This invention relates to apparatus and systems for thermal measurement of high voltage electrical power transmission and distribution lines and related high voltage components and equipment such as occur in substations, and more particularly, to apparatus and systems that make use of contact thermal sensors for determining the temperature of the power lines and associated high voltage components and equipment.
Demand for electric power has grown faster than the capability of the existing distributed power delivery assets to deliver it reliably. Since the mid-1990""s, sales of power loaded onto the U.S. power transmission and distribution grids has increased 100-fold. Despite this unprecedented and growing demand for electrical power, erection of new transmission lines in the North America has not kept pace. New construction costs are high and lead times are long. Costs for the construction of new high voltage transmission capacity can range from $1,100,000 to $3,300,000 per circuit-mile. If land acquisition and/or establishment/extension of rights-of-way are involved, lead times can be as long as 4 years or more. Recent industry literature is replete with phrases such as, xe2x80x9cconstruction of new transmission capacity is grinding to a halt.xe2x80x9d On Jan. 1, 1992, 191,690 circuit-miles of transmission existed in North America. Ten-year plans ending 2002 called for 8.3% additions to transmission capacity through new construction. As of the end of 1998, approximately 30% of these additions had been built; the 207,586 circuit miles seen as required by 2002 had been whittled down to 202,196 circuit-miles, and completion of the additions had been pushed out 5 years to 2007. In 1998, the North American Electric Reliability Council (xe2x80x9cNRECxe2x80x9d), listed planned transmission additions (230 kV transmission systems and above) through 2007 of 6,588 circuit-miles.
As a result, the electrical power distribution industry is faced with squeezing more current delivery out of existing infrastructure. Utilities are being tasked to operate existing power lines at previously unexplored operating levels for extended periods of time. Transmission systems are being operated in a manner for which control of them was not designed. Blackouts, equipment damage, and system disturbances are becoming widespread, with ever increasing frequency and effect.
Electrical current flowing through a metallic conductor causes I2R losses in the conductor, that is, heat generation in the conductor changes exponentially with changes in current load. The current/temperature relationship affects not only the high voltage lines but also system equipment, conductors, and components in the power line circuit. This includes buses, switches, cables, transformers, etc. in high voltage transmission and distribution substations. This relationship of conductor temperature to current impacts two factors that limit how much current a given high voltage transmission line can safely and reliably transmit or carry on a continuous basis: firstly, the clearance between the mid-point of the line (at a span between two transmission towers) and the ground beneath the mid-point (or a grounded object, e.g., a tree); secondly, the temperature at which the transmission line begins to undergo irreversible physical (mechanical and/or electrical) changes.
Firstly, metals expand on heating. If too much current passes through a power line, the line may sag so close to the ground that it violates the mandated clearance for such lines. These clearances are regarded as xe2x80x98deadly seriousxe2x80x99 by utilities. In some cases, the line may sag far enough to make contact with a grounded object. In such events, blackouts can and do result, and with these come losses: loss of equipment and property, loss of electric service to customers, lost utility revenues, customer manufacturing and product losses, productivity losses, and even loss life. Thus high line temperatures are a limiting factor of how much current a line can safely transfer.
Secondly, if too much current passes through the line, the resulting temperature of the line will cause the aluminum conductor material to anneal. When aluminum anneals, its mechanical and electrical properties change irreversibly; annealed aluminum has higher resistivity and lower mechanical strength than ordinary aluminum. After annealing, electrical transmission losses increase via heat generation, and the amount of sag increases for any given amount of current passing through the conductor. Once a line is annealed, electric power companies generally cut back or limit power flow. The damaged line can bottleneck the entire circuit in which it resides. In some cases, it is necessary to replace the annealed transmission line.
xe2x80x9cAmpacityxe2x80x9d is current carrying capability expressed in amperes. As a result of the effect of current on temperature and the effect of temperature on metal, manufacturers of high voltage lines, system equipment, conductors, and other components in the power line circuit thermally rate their products according to limiting ampacities. These name plate ratings are based on the characteristics of the materials used in the product and, at least in the case of transmission lines, on limited assumptions of environmental conditions (e.g., 90xc2x0 C. and a crosswind of 2 feet per second for transmission lines). Power distribution companies may xe2x80x9cde-ratexe2x80x9d the nameplate value based on the intended use of the product, for example, because of predicted heating of the product by the environment in which it will operate. Environmentally caused heating is founded on historical information and assumptions of conditions such as wind speed and direction, ambient temperature, humidity, barometric pressure and incident solar radiation. Conservative safety factors (e.g., hottest day, little or no wind, etc.) are applied to reach the rating. Power distribution companies operate their equipment within the name plate ampacity ratings of the manufacturers to prevent the annealing and line sag problems mentioned. To do this, power companies measure current to indirectly gain a reading of percentage of name plate ampacity that a given power load represents.
The ampacity of a power line varies according to the temperature component of the line imposed by actual environmental conditions under which a power line circuit is operating. More current can be transferred through a circuit when the lines are colder than when they are hotter. In order to transfer more current through existing lines without blackouts or system disturbances, power companies need to know in real time as conditions change, moment to moment, at any time, day or night, the dynamic actual ampacity of its equipment, not the static name plate ampacity predictively rated by the manufacturer. Knowing the dynamic actual ampacities, power loads can be safely, accurately, and reliably increased and adjusted within the real time current carrying capabilities of the power distribution system. As a result, the true capacity of the system at the moment can be utilized to safely and reliably deliver more power to customers than present static ratings and operational control methods allow.
Dynamic actual ampacity can be determined by knowledge of actual moment to moment temperatures of the power line. In addition, by knowing actual equipment operating temperatures, substations can be operated and protected optimally based on the thermal state and history of equipment. Substation equipment is routinely tripped (i.e., taken off line in order to protect it) based on information from current sensors, without regard to actual equipment operating temperature. In many instances, such equipment is operating safely, from a thermal standpoint, and is not in danger of undergoing thermal damage. Continuous temperature monitoring allows such equipment to continue operating safely.
In earlier years, in order to monitor power line sag, a number of diverse technologies were developed to monitor line temperatures directly or indirectly. Early methods provided electrical devices mounted on or nearby or moved along the power lines. Various thermocouple, resistance temperature monitors (RTD""s), thermistor, solid state or other electromechanical transducer systems were suggested, typically employing radio frequency or other transmittal of sensed information, as represented by U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,268,818, 4,384,289; 4,635,055; 4,709,339; 4,728,887; 4,801,937; 4,806,855; 4,818,990, 4,894,785, 4,904,996; 5,006,846; 5,029,101; 5,140,257; and 5,181,026; or a fiber optic link as in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,859,925 and 5,341,088. High voltage insulators have been developed containing fiber optics to link these traditional methods of measurement, as in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,613,727; 4,802,731; and 5,594,827. These traditional methods of measuring temperature (thermocouples and thermistors) are not safe, accurate or reliable in the extremely high voltage environment. Susceptibility to intense electric fields in the high voltage environment inevitably results in damage and catastrophic failure of electronic sensors such as thermocouples and thermistors.
Other methods, such as capturing an image of the line relative to the ground, and then using software to analyze the image for clearance, have been used to estimate the sag in a line. Alternatively, line tension monitors have been used to calculate sag, but installation requirements do not allow tension to be determined at every location; only certain spans can support a tension monitor. As a result, line tension is frequently determined for a span that is actually not the thermally limiting span, or it is determined so far from the thermally limiting span as to be of limited use insofar as the dynamic rating of the whole circuit is concerned.
Optical fibers, due to dielectric construction, are free from electrical interference, and use of them as an intrinsic sensor has been made or suggested for sensing power line temperatures. A segment of the fiber serves as a sensor gauge while a long length of the same or another fiber conveys the sensed information to a remote station where the sensed information is decoded with reflectometric or interferometric technologies and used by computers to calculate temperatures. One such system using optical time domain reflectometry and measuring Raman backscatter as a temperature sensing principle is described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,167,525. Alternatively to Raman backscattering, the detection of changes in phase of light emerging from a single mode optical fiber has been employed for current and voltage control in high power cables, using interferometric schemes (Mach-Zehnder, Michelson, Fabry-Perot or Sagnac forms). The Raman backscattering and interferometric techniques, while offering good sensitivity and accuracy, are quite complicated and costly in terms of procurement, installation, operation, maintenance, and repair.
Another kind of temperature sensor using optical fibers is an extrinsic sensor in which the temperature sensitive elements are distinct from the optical fiber itself. These type sensors basically fall into two groups: pyrometeric sensors used to remotely detect infrared radiations emitted from hot bodies, and contact sensors which rely on conductive heat transfer. Examples of extrinsic contact sensors are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,409,476; 4,437,761; 4,575,259; 4,671,651; 4,689,483; 5,004,913; 5,036,194 and 5,062,686. The typical suggested applications for extrinsic contact sensors are aerospace, chemical process and other life intolerant environments.
A simple, direct reading of a conductor temperature is a more accurate and relevant operating or condition parameter for determining ampacity than current load (i.e., amperes). A current overloaded object fails because of thermal damage, not because of current, per se. An accurate real time measure of temperature of components of electrical power distribution systems will give electric power companies the ability to have real time dynamic ampacity ratings of their systems.
It is a goal of this invention to provide accurate, continuous, real-time temperature monitoring of critical electrical power transmission system components and equipment.
It is an object of this invention to enable dynamic thermal circuit rating and operation of electrical power transmission lines and systems.
It is an object of this invention to enable temperature monitoring of existing transmission system assets (equipment, components, conductors, substations, etc.) to allow safe and reliable operation at higher-than-statically-rated amperages.
In accordance with this invention, apparatus and systems are provided for inexpensively and reliably monitoring and detecting in real time the actual temperature of a high voltage conductor, unaffected by the electric field of the conductor, and for reporting such actual temperatures. From knowledge of this temperature, high voltage power lines can be operated more confidently to employ all the current carrying capacity of the power line within maximum safe limits.
As used in this invention, the term xe2x80x9cconductorxe2x80x9d includes any electrically conductive component in an electric power transmission and distribution system, and includes transmission lines and components and equipment in substations.
The invention for monitoring actual operating temperatures of high voltage conductors comprises a novel combination of (i) an electrically and thermally conductive fixture for attachment to a high voltage conductor, (ii) a high voltage insulator having a high voltage end and a reference potential end and a fiber optic cable passageway from the reference potential end to the high voltage end, the insulator being connected at the high voltage end to the fixture, (iii) a fiber optic cable within the passageway of the insulator, the cable extending beyond the insulator, (iv) an optical temperature sensor head optically coupled to the fiber optic cable, the sensor head comprising a sensor crystal which transmits light that varies with temperature of the sensor crystal, and (v) an electrically and thermally conductive enclosure for the sensor head, supported in the fixture for thermally conductive contact with the high voltage conductor effective to couple the temperature of the high voltage conductor to the sensor crystal.
The apparatus of this invention allows extrinsic sensors optically coupled to optical fibers to be reliably used for contact thermal measurement of high voltage conductors despite the extremely high strength electric field that is generated by electric current as it flows through high voltage conductors.
Typically, extrinsic fiber optic contact temperature sensors in various other applications are constructed of all (or mostly all) dielectric insulating materials. Extension of this construction experience to a high voltage electric field environment is intuitively logical, since intrinsic sensor systems rely on the dielectric characteristics of optical fiber for determination of temperature in this environment. However, sensors constructed of dielectric insulating materials almost certainly will fail due to electric field induced damage if placed in contact with or in proximity to a high voltage conductor. If sensor components, whatever they are, are housed in a polymer, glass, ceramic or other dielectric insulator, the presence of even one tiny air gap, micro-bubble, void, point of humidity ingress, or other like flaw, will become a hot-spot in the high voltage electric field due to electrically induced breakdown and will eventually cause the sensor to fail.
The present invention avoids this high risk mode of failure from intense electric fields in the presence of high voltage conductors, surprisingly, by employing in the novel combination described above, an electrically conductive casing for the sensor head. Because electric fields cannot penetrate closed electrical conductors, the enclosed sensor heads components cannot be affected by the powerful and inexorable degenerative effects of the extremely high strength electric field that is generated by electric current as it flows through high voltage conductors. For the casing to be an electrical conductor, the casing is metallic. The casing preferably is aluminum, which among non-exotic metals is bested in thermal conductivity only by copper, but does not set up a galvanic reaction with the most commonly employed high voltage conductor materials to the extent that copper does. The metallic casing has the advantages of very small thermal mass and very low thermal impedance.
The novel combination of fixture, insulator, one or more optical fibers, sensor head and the enclosure encasing the sensor head described above preferably is combined in a unitary structure embodiment, that is, the elements of the combination are unitized in one xe2x80x9cmonolithicxe2x80x9d ready-to-install structure, which, for brevity of reference hereinafter is sometimes called the xe2x80x9cunitary structurexe2x80x9d. The unitary structure allows easy and rapid attachment to conductors, and holds the sensor head and insulator in rigid and intimate thermal, physical, and electrical contact with the conductor to be monitored. The fixture also shields the sensor head from dynamic external environmental effects (sunlight, precipitation/humidity, wind, ambient temperature) that could effect the temperature reading. The fixture is tailored to the size, type, and voltage class of the conductor type to be monitored. The unitary structure can be attached to conductors ranging in size and type, for example, from six inch aluminum buses in transmission substations to three-fourths inch diameter high voltage transmission line cables. As the specified operating voltage changes, the length of the insulator and necessary length of optical fiber used is changed accordingly. The one or more optical fibers sealed and supported by the insulator may be one optical fiber, two optical fibers, or an array of fibers in a fiber optic cable. Preferably standard, multi-mode, all-dielectric optical fiber is used. The fiber is very rugged, and provides for high reliability trouble-free installation and operation.
The sensor head of the invention and the unitary structure embodiment comprises a sensor crystal that transmits light that varies as the temperature of the sensor crystal changes, and optionally includes with some crystals a reflector arranged adjacent the sensor crystal distally to the one or more optical fibers, for reflecting light back through the sensor crystal. The sensor crystal may be one of several types. It may be one which shifts the wavelength of light passing through it with changing temperature, or one which modulates the intensity of transmitted light according to a change in temperature of the sensor, or one having material that absorbs incident light and produces a luminescence of wavelength that changes according to the temperature of the sensor. The luminescence may be fluorescent or phosphorescent. Preferably a fluorescence crystal comprises a chromium doped beryllium aluminum oxide or chromium doped yttrium oxide single crystal material, such as Alexandrite. Where the sensor crystal modulates the intensity of transmitted light according to a change in temperature of the sensor, the sensor crystal preferably has an absorption band edge that is temperature sensitive in the range from about xe2x88x9280xc2x0 C. to about 200xc2x0 C.
The sensor head suitably further comprises a gradient index lens (GRIN lens) having a focal plane parallel to and contacting the end face of the one or more optical fibers extending from the high voltage side of the insulator, with another focal plane parallel to and contacting the sensor crystal.
The sensing element of the foregoing apparatus of this invention expresses its optical message suitably with light from a source radiating light through the one or more optical fibers. The kind and power of the light source affects the sensitivity of the sensor and allows it to measure temperatures over a selected temperature range. If it is unnecessary to measure temperature with high resolution, accuracy and precision over a large temperature range, the light source may be an incandescent lamp with a band pass filter or a light emitting diode. If it is desirable to measure temperature over a large range with high resolution, accuracy and precision, coherent light producing a narrow bandwidth is preferred. In such event, the light source advantageously is a diode laser that launches light in the near infrared spectrum, particularly a diode laser that has a coupling output of at least about 20 decibels above 1 milliwatt, that is, at least about 100 milliwatts. When used with a luminescent sensor crystal, a Q switched laser diode is suitably employed. Employing a light attenuating absorption edge optical sensor that is temperature sensitive in the range from about 0xc2x0 to about 200xc2x0 C. powered by a laser diode, temperature detection with a resolution of 0.5xc2x0 C., at an accuracy of 1xc2x0 C. and precision of 1xc2x0 C. over a range of 0-160xc2x0 C. is possible.
A detector is optically coupled to an optical fiber carrying said return light from the sensor. The coupling is at an end of the fiber optic cable remote from where the cable exits the insulator member of the apparatus. The detector receives and converts the optical information in the return light into information in another form, for example, voltage, representative of the temperature of said high voltage conductor.
For example, the temperature of the high voltage conductor to which the sensor head is fixed may be detected by employing a photodetector such as a photodiode for detecting the return light and converting it to electrical values which, if analog, are then converted to digital values and processed by a computer against calibration curves data which correlates to the temperature of the sensor. Alternatively, a spectrometer may be used in the case of wavelength shift crystals such as GaAs and the position of the absorption shift analyzed and correlated back to temperature. Or an optical comparator may be employed for comparing intensity of the light from the light source with intensity of the optical radiation radiated by the sensor crystal to produce a result of the comparison, and a converter for converting the result into a representation of sensed temperature of the high voltage conductor.
A data processor suitably receives and processes the information from the detector to determine the temperature sensed by the sensor crystal. The processor communicates with machine readable data storage to which the data of temperature determined by the data processor are written and read, and one or more human readable output devices such as a printer or display monitor is accessed by the processor to report data of temperature determined by the data processor.